5 things we learned in primaries

• Establishment Republicans continued winning streak against tea party


• Rand Paul went one step further in support of Mitch McConnell


• After divisive races, GOP looking for party unity


• Margolies comeback falters despite high-profile help

(CNN) -- Six states held primaries on Tuesday, and once again anti-establishment candidates came up short in high-profile Republican showdowns.

That's a sharp difference with what we have seen over the last two election cycles, when establishment Republicans were overwhelmed by the insurgency in their own party and did little to stop it. But they appear to have turned the tables on the conservatives so far in this election cycle and have a string of victories to show for it.

Here are five things we learned Tuesday night:

1. Establishment GOP has learned to play ball: Since its birth in 2009, the tea party has had successes in primaries but those have given the GOP plenty of headaches and hurt its chances of winning back the Senate, effectively costing Republicans five winnable elections over the last two cycles.

This year, the establishment has had the upper hand in most contests against tea party-backed challengers. Showdowns on Tuesday in Kentucky, Idaho, Georgia, and Oregon kept that winning streak going.

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In Kentucky, Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell easily dispatched Matt Bevin, who enjoyed the support of tea party activists and anti-establishment groups. It was a similar story in Idaho, where eight-term Rep. Mike Simpson also beat back a similar challenge from the right.

In Georgia's free-for-all Republican Senate primary, the two finishers who now move onto a July runoff were considered the most acceptable to the establishment. And in Oregon, pediatric neurosurgeon Dr. Monica Wehby, who enjoyed support from the GOP establishment, defeated a more conservative candidate for the state's Republican Senate nomination.

How did they do it?

The winners all ran smart campaigns and were fortunate that the losers stumbled. And outside help also made a difference. The pro-business U.S. Chamber of Commerce spent more than $4 million to support McConnell, Simpson and Rep. Jack Kingston, who will face off with businessman David Perdue in the Georgia runoff.

One reason for the winning streak: The establishment has learned how to play ball with the tea party.

"Every establishment candidate ran like a tea party candidate. It's hard to tell the difference this time around, because they had a uniting factor in opposing Obamacare but also united on issues like immigration and trade and climate change. The establishment Republican Party ran to the right this time," said CNN Chief Political Analyst Gloria Borger.

What's at stake in 2014?

While Democrats argue that the move to the right will backfire on the GOP come November, midterm elections are traditionally low turnout affairs compared to presidential elections. And in such contests, the key to victory is often getting out the base.

2. Is Rand Paul now all in for McConnell?: Sen. Rand Paul endorsed McConnell in the primary, but his support seemed tepid at best. In February, Paul said he backed his fellow Kentucky senator simply "because he asked me."

His lukewarm support wasn't all that surprising. After all, McConnell didn't back Paul in the GOP primary in 2010, though he made amends and endorsed Paul in the general election.

Still, Paul's endorsement this cycle was strategically a big deal for McConnell. It helped boost the five-term senator's conservative cred in a race that ultimately pitted him against a tea party challenger.

Paul hasn't been McConnell's most vocal surrogate, but on Tuesday night he delivered an enthusiastic video message at McConnell's election night headquarters, preaching his theme of party unity, and couching his support for McConnell as a chance to help Republicans take the Senate.

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"Four years ago, after a contentious primary, Sen. McConnell pulled the party together. Republicans united to forge a big victory and allow me to be a U.S. senator. Republicans must now come together again. We must unite to stop Harry Reid and his liberal allies from controlling the Senate," he said.

Paul said he'll "crisscross" Kentucky over the next six months to help campaign for McConnell and other Republican candidates in the state.

But if he runs for president — possibly starting as early as next year -- he'll still have to think about that grassroots establishment base, and that may keep him at arm's length from McConnell.

Key races in the 2014 midterms

3. Putting down the swords: Speaking of unity, Paul wasn't the only one calling for a more cohesive GOP.

Conservatives seemed to be keenly aware Tuesday night that McConnell is heading into a tight race against Democrat Alison Lundergan Grimes. Despite disagreeing with the longtime senator on some big issues, a number of conservative groups were quick to offer an olive branch and call for unity after Bevin lost to McConnell.

They made it clear that potentially losing Kentucky's Senate seat to a Democrat is much worse than losing it to an establishment Republican.

The Senate Conservatives Fund, which spent big bucks for Bevin, congratulated McConnell in a statement and said, "it's time for Republicans to unite for victory in November."

Erick Erickson, the editor of the influential conservative website RedState, announced Tuesday before the results were in that he "proudly" supported McConnell and sent his campaign $250 to help with the general election.

"People tell me I'm a leader in the conservative movement. Sometimes leading means going where I'd prefer not to," he wrote.

The Madison Project, another group that backed Bevin, also asked "all Republicans to come together to defeat" Grimes.

And in his concession speech, Bevin didn't back McConnell, but he said he has no intention "of supporting the Democratic platform over the Republican platform."

But not everyone was singing quite the same tune. The group FreedomWorks, which plays a major role in the tea party movement, didn't call for Republicans to unite around McConnell, but they didn't attack him either.

"Competition always breeds stronger candidates, and there is an improved conservative candidate heading into the general election as a result," the group's president, Matt Kibbe, said in a statement.

The questions is: Will conservatives be ready to hold hands with the establishment every time their candidate loses? Or is this simply a strategic alliance to boost the chances of a GOP win in November?

4. Clinton support is no guarantee: Marjorie Margolies, a former congresswoman from Pennsylvania who was seeking a comeback, lost Tuesday night in a Democratic House primary, despite having support from some of the most popular Democrats in the country: Bill and Hillary Clinton.

They also happen to be Margolies' in-laws. Her son, Marc Mezvinsky, married Chelsea Clinton in 2010, and the couple are expecting their first child this fall.

Margolies was running in a competitive four-way Democratic primary for Pennsylvania's 13th Congressional District.

Hillary Clinton appeared at a private fundraiser for Margolies last week, making it the only 2014 race she's gotten involved with this year so far. The former president appeared on the trail for her and made robocalls for the candidate this past weekend.

Their support for Margolies was by far the Clintons' most visible campaign activity this year. But Tuesday night's race, which went to Brendan Boyle, indicated that support from the Clintons isn't necessarily a golden ticket.

Margolies represented the eastern Pennsylvania seat for two years in the early '90s. She ended up losing her seat after being the deciding vote in favor of Clinton's budget.

Bill Clinton didn't forget the price she paid. He campaigned for Margolies in April and noted that he "would be here if her son was not my son-in-law."

Margolies told Borger that she knew it was a risky move to have the Clintons publicly supporting her.

"We always knew that if they came in too much, we would be blamed for their coming in too much. If they don't come in enough, then people would say they didn't come in enough. You're kind of damned if you do, damned if you don't," Margolies said. "They have done everything we've asked them to do, and I am running on what I have accomplished in the last 20 years and not on my affiliation with the Clintons."

On the comeback trail with help from the Clintons

5. What happens in May matters in November: We already knew this, but it's worth repeating: Primary results have major consequences.

The victories by McConnell in Kentucky, and Wehby in Oregon, and with Perdue and Kingston advancing to the runoff in the Georgia Senate race ahead of three more conservative candidates, the GOP improved its chances come November.

By nominating candidates who have a better shot of appealing to the wider electorate that votes in November, Republicans now upped their odds when it comes to winning the six Democratic-held seats the party needs to win back the control of the Senate.

The victories on Tuesday followed establishment Senate primary wins in North Carolina two weeks ago and in Texas in March.

With establishment candidates in most of the remaining primaries leading in the public opinion polls, the trend should continue.

Malaga looks to attract Chinese tourists

According to a study by La Caixa, within 10 years, 25% of tourists will be from China.

With this in mind, the Costa del Sol is looking towards the Asian country to attract potential clients.

In the first three months of this year, 2,529 Chinese tourists visited Malaga city, 62% more than in the same period of 2013.

Since 2012, China has been the country which spends most on tourism in the world, with a total of $102 billion, but while other visitors are looking for sun and sand, the Chinese mainly want culture and history, which means that the Malaga-Costa del Sol Tourism Board will have to promote this sector if they want to be amongst the favourite destinations for China.

Campaigns to promote the area are currently being carried out a major tourism fairs, keeping in mind that visitors from China are also very keen on shopping, especially for luxury products.

Meetings are also being held with the major airlines operating from China.

Although only 3% of Chinese tourists travel to Europe, their favourite destination in Andalucia is Malaga.

Meanwhile, the Russians are also becoming regulars on the Costa del Sol, with almost 50,000 visiting the province last year, 14.2% more than in 2012.

Although the Russians head to Marbella and the surrounding area, much remains to be done to reach the levels seen in areas such as Cataluña.

America's weirdest rock formations

Just a few miles east of Yosemite National Park, visitors will find tufa towers rising out of the waters at Mono Lake, a body of water more than twice as salty as the ocean.

Don't worry. The goblins at Goblin Valley State Park in Utah can't get you. They're really mushroom-shaped hoodoos formed by water erosion and dust blowing across the valley.

Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument is another prime example of Utah's amazing rock formations, including this Toadstool hoodoo.

The Navajo Nation's Shiprock in New Mexico is the remnants of a volcano that erupted more than 30 million years ago. It's a sacred site to the Navajo people.

Nevada's Valley of Fire State Park plays host to remarkable rock formations created by shifting sane dunes some 150 million years ago.

Pioneers heading west along the Mormon, Oregon and California trails would appreciate seeing the landmark known as Chimney Rock National Historic Site in Nebraska. It's the result of a volcanic eruption and millions of years of erosion.

The Yellowstone River gets much of the credit for the odd and beautiful rock formations at Makoshika State Park in Montana.

On a clear, sunny day at Lake Huron, the not romantically-named Turnip Rock in Michigan, will overcome its name.

Devils Tower in northeast Wyoming, the start of the national monument of the same name, rises more impressively than any skyscraper.

Catch a grand view of Pikes Peak from Garden of the Gods, some 1,300 acres of cliffs and boulders owned by the city of Colorado Springs, Colorado.

The so-called Chalk Monuments, a National Natural Landmark, were formed millions of years ago on the High Plains of western Kansas.

Revered by the Monacan as a sacred place, the Natural Bridge in Virginia was once owned by Thomas Jefferson.

There are still active volcanoes at Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, demonstrating how volcanoes redefine the natural landscape.

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• Nature is the artist for much of the wild rock sculpture across the U.S.


• Rock formations have been formed by water, wind and the occasional volcano


• One Utah park features mushroom-like rock pillars shaped by water erosion


• Remember that some sites are sacred to Native American nations

(CNN) -- Our planet is chock full of the beautiful and bizarre.

Give nature millions of years to work its magic and some pretty weird formations emerge from solid rock.

The best parks in the U.S.

Watch lava flow into ocean

Falling Rock Danger at Yosemite

From violent volcanic eruptions to the slow movement of wind and water, the forces of nature have made the United States, particularly the western half of the country, a showcase for wild-looking sculpture.

Here are some of the most awe-inspiring places in the country to witness these odd rock formations:

Mono Lake Tufa State Natural Reserve, California

To visit Mono Lake is to behold an other-worldly landscape. Located just 13 miles east of Yosemite National Park, this ancient lake receives salt and minerals from Sierra streams, creating calcium carbonate spires called tufa towers that rise majestically from the water. As fresh water evaporates from the lake, it leaves behind the salt, making the lake more than twice as salty as the ocean and offering visitors the opportunity for a buoyant swim during warmer summer months. In winter, snow glitters dramatically on the tufas.

Stop at the visitors center to learn more about the natural history of the region, then try the self-guided nature trail to experience this unique landscape firsthand. It's a paradise for photographers and nature lovers.

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Goblin Valley State Park, Utah

Southern Utah is one of the most spectacular geological shows on Earth. With so many peculiar rock formations here, visits to Bryce Canyon, Arches or Canyonlands National Parks, to name a few, will not disappoint. But two parks really stand out in the category of rocks with character.

One is Goblin Valley State Park near the town of Green River. Below dramatic red buttes and cliffs lies a valley populated with thousands of uncannily mushroom-shaped hoodoos, rock pillars shaped by water erosion and dust blown across the valley, that resemble goblins. Every hour and every weather condition creates a different mood in this surreal landscape. In the winter, the park offers snowshoeing and skiing amid a breathtaking scene of snow on red rocks. Stay for sunset and see the goblins glow like burning embers.

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Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument, Utah

Escalante-Grand Staircase National Monument is Utah's other rock star. This enormous, 1.7 million acre property offers hikes to spectacular formations like Metate Arch in Devil's Garden and the Wahweap Hoodoos, slender, ghostly rocks that can reach several stories high. For a short and easy hike, try the Toadstools Trail to see special white, beige and red hoodoos formed by large boulders perched above softer, eroded rock. They give new meaning to the term "magic mushrooms."

Stop at the Bureau of Land Management office in Kanab or Escalante to review maps, learn about weather advisories and other information important in preparing for the harsh conditions in this sometimes other-worldly land.

Shiprock, Navajo Nation, New Mexico

Wandering among giants

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Driving north from Gallup, New Mexico, on State Route 491 toward the Four Corners Monument, one passes through the vast, arid lands of the eastern Navajo Nation. To the north are the Rockies. To the west, the Chuska Mountains on the border of Arizona and New Mexico. And to the east, the dusty, sparsely-vegetated landscape of the San Juan Basin seems to go on forever, like a wide dry sea. But eventually, a jagged dark figure looms on the horizon like ship sailing through the desert -- or, as Navajos refer to it, "rock with wings."

Shiprock is the remnants of a volcano that erupted more than 30 million years ago. At nearly 1,600 feet, it's the single most prominent figure on this desert landscape. There are no amenities at the site, and it is forbidden to hike or climb on this sacred peak. Just pull off the road for a stunning photo, or walk around to enjoy sound of the wind as it blows dramatic cloud shadows across the plain, and contemplate the immensity of this powerful place.

Valley of Fire State Park, Nevada

Just an hour's drive from the Las Vegas Strip, Valley of Fire State Park offers a number of impressive rock formations created by shifting sand dunes during the Mesozoic era some 150 million years ago. Of the dozens of beautiful and odd formations you'll find here, perhaps none is stranger than Elephant Rock, where erosion has sculpted a slanted arch resembling an elephant's trunk and body.

There is a parking lot less than a mile from Elephant Rock and a walking trail to the site. Come on a summer's day when the sun is blazing down on the red sandstone, and you'll agree that the park was aptly named: It's an oven. The rest of the year offers more comfortable temperatures for doing short, relatively easy hikes with opportunities to see wildlife, petrified wood and petroglyphs.

Chimney Rock National Historic Site, Nebraska

Chimney Rock was a welcome landmark for pioneers making arduous westward journeys along the Oregon, Mormon and California Trails in the early 19th century. The narrow spire juts from a base of volcanic ash and clay, the remnant of an eruption sharpened into a slender tower by millions of years of erosion.

A state-owned buffer zone around the rock has prevented development near the site, allowing visitors to see it rise from the grassy prairie in much the same way as pioneers traveling overland in covered wagons. The Nebraska State Historical Society runs a visitor center with information on the natural and human history associated with the Chimney Rock.

Makoshika State Park, Montana

This park's strange and beautiful rock formations were formed by the Yellowstone River and various streams that have cut through the rock over millions of years, carving out hoodoos, spires and caprocks. The name Makoshika comes from a Lakota word for badlands.

Short walks of less than 2 miles afford great views. Try the Cap Rock Nature Trail, the Diane Gabriel Trail and the Kinney Coulee Trail, located just outside the park, which descends into a canyon with a diversity of hoodoos. This is also dinosaur country: Check out the complete Triceratops skull on display at the visitor center, along with remains of a Tyrannosaurus Rex and a rare Thescelosaurus.

Turnip Rock, Michigan

The unglamorously named Turnip Rock is a stunning sight, particularly on a warm sunny day when the clear, blue-green waters of Lake Huron sparkle. Wave erosion has caused this flat, tree-covered rock island to taper to a narrow base, around which people swim in the summer months.

Turnip Rock is located in a portion of eastern Michigan dubbed the Thumb, where 140 miles of coastline and waterfront towns offer a variety of outdoor activities, including biking, walking and kayaking.

It's just offshore from private property inaccessible to the general public, so a good way to approach the rock is by kayak, which can be rented in the small village of Port Austin. Kayaking out in pre-dawn darkness to catch the sun rise behind Turnip Rock is a special treat for experienced kayakers. During winter months, the rock ceases to be an island as the lake ices over, creating another dazzling scene.

Devils Tower National Monument, Wyoming

It is more imposing than any skyscraper as it comes into view, rising more than 867 feet from a grassy, tree-dotted hillside in northeast Wyoming. Devils Tower is not the remnant of an erupted volcano, but instead a place where magma welled up inside the surrounding rock and then cooled. When the rock eroded away, this cylindrical tower with a texture that resembles bear claw marks remained. Many Native American tribes consider it sacred.

There are 8 miles of nature trails around the monument that take visitors through grasslands and ponderosa pine forests at its base. Rangers also lead tours of the monument, and the visitors center offers programs and exhibits about the ecological, geological and cultural features of the site.

While Devils Tower is a popular site for climbers, this conflicts with some tribes' beliefs about how a sacred site should be treated. The National Park Service asks climbers to voluntarily refrain from ascending during the month of June. Rest assured that the view of the tower from its base is magnificent.

Garden of the Gods, Colorado Springs, Colorado

It's not what comes to most people's minds when they picture a city park, but the City of Colorado Springs owns and maintains this grand, nearly 1,300-acre assemblage of red rock cliffs, spires and boulders.

The park's most famous formation is Balanced Rock, an enormous boulder that from certain angles appears to defy the laws of physics as it perches precariously on the edge of a ledge. This makes it a favorite photo op, of course. The short, easy Siamese Twins trail also offers impressive views of snow-capped Pikes Peak.

Monument Rocks, Kansas

It's a bit of a surprise to be driving through farmlands near Lewis, Kansas, and suddenly spot a series of tall chalk towers on the horizon. The collection of rocks is a national landmark that looks something like a Stonehenge on the prairie. However, the monoliths at Monument Rocks were carved not by human hands, but by wind and water after a sea that once covered the region receded. That means the rocks also contain a lot of fossils.

Visitors can walk among the towers, but be aware: This is private property, and the rocks are very fragile -- so walk lightly here and don't scramble around or dig among them.

Natural Bridge, Virginia

Located in the southern end of the Shenandoah Valley, Natural Bridge is not only an impressive natural wonder and a national historic landmark, it is steeped in early American history and immortalized in the works of mid-19th century Hudson River School landscape painters Frederic Edwin Church and David Johnson.

Cedar Creek, which feeds the James River, carved out an enormous portal in this more than 200-foot high limestone tower, which was once part of an underground cavern that collapsed through the process of water erosion. (Visitors can still tour nearby caverns, the deepest on the East Coast.) Along with Niagara Falls, Natural Bridge was considered one of early America's great natural wonders.

Revered by the Monacan tribe as a sacred place, Natural Bridge was later purchased by Thomas Jefferson, who kept it in his estate for the rest of his life. It remained a privately-owned property until earlier this year, when the State of Virginia announced that the bridge and 1,500 surrounding acres would become a state park property by the end of 2015. It is a scenic starting point from which to explore the Cedar Creek Trail and the Monacan Indian Living History Village.

Hawaii Volcanoes National Park

The island of Hawaii is one of the few places where it's possible to directly witness how volcanoes create strange formations. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park rises from sea level to 13,677 feet at the Mauna Loa Crater and includes diverse geological features like cinder cones, pit craters and living lava.

The two active volcanoes here are Mauna Loa and Kilauea. Check out the Banana Lava Flow at the end of Chain of Craters Road, where you may see lava pouring directly into the ocean, and walk the trail leading through the Thurston Lava Tube, a tunnel formed by hot lava flowing beneath a hardened surface. Another intriguing hike is the 1974 Lava Tree and Keanakakoi Crater Hike, which loops through a forest destroyed by a lava flow that coated the trees -- some of which remain standing, although in much-altered form.

A word of caution: Stop at the visitor center before venturing to more active parts of the volcano. Although it's possible to get up close and personal with hot, flowing lava, it is dangerous. Know the risks before you go.

Flying the flag in Almeria Province

The Province will be flying Blue Flags of quality on 27 beaches, a port, a museum and a walkway this year.

The 27 beaches to earn this international distinction are distributed between eight municipalities Adra, El Ejido, Roquetas de Mar, Almeria City, Nijar, Carboneras, Mojacar and Pulpi.

As last year, Roquetas has the most Blue Flag beaches with six in total, added to this is a Blue Flag for the port of Roquetas, the only award given to a port in the province.

El Ejido is next on the list with five Blue Flags with a new flag awarded to the Guardia Viejas beach.

Mojacar this year has three Blue Flag beaches, one less than last year after the Playa del Descargador missed out.

The town of Adra has a Blue Flag centre, awarded to the Sea Museum, while a Blue Flag trail has been awarded to the San Nicolas trail.

The blue flag is an international symbol that since 1987 has rewarded compliance standards such as accessibility, water quality and environmental information.

New patrol cars for Alhaurin

Local Police in Alhaurin de la Torre now have a new patrol car.

The local councillor for Traffic and Citizen Safety, Gerardo Velasco, announced that there are now nine vehicles in the fleet, having added the new Renault Megane Space, with all the latest technology.

It has cost €30,000, the mayor, Joaquin Villanova, reported, saying that it was a positive step for the town.

It has been completely adapted for police needs and is already in use, making the fleet more modern and suited to the size of the force.

Led Zeppelin sued over rock masterpiece

Rock band Led Zeppelin are being accused of lifting another band’s music.

Members from the Los Angeles band Spirit are alleging that the band lifted the opening riffs of the classic hit Stairway to Heaven from their 1968 instrumental piece Taurus.

Legal representative Francis Alexander Malofiy confirmed a report in Bloomberg Businessweek saying that a copyright lawsuit is in the works. Malofiy declined to give details.

Spirit's founding bassist, Mark Andes, and the trust that manages royalties for the band's guitarist, Randy California, who died in 1997, are said to be the complainants.

Prog-Rock/Psychedelic band Spirit and Brit Rock group Led Zeppelin were on a US tour together in 1969.

A year later, in 1970, Led Zeppelin guitarist Jimmy Page is said to have started writing Stairway to Heaven while staying at a remote cottage in Wales.

The legendary song was recorded and released the following year, and ever since it has been widely regarded as one of the greatest rock tunes of all time.

Bloomberg Businessweek stated that the eight-minute song had earned $562m as of 2008.

Warning labels for Shakespeare?

David Perry says students don't need special warnings before reading Shakespeare, whose bust is seen at The Garrick Inn in Stratford-upon-Avon.

• Universities have debated putting warning labels on violent, abusive scenes in literature


• David Perry: It should not be necessary to have a new policy of warning labels


• Good teachers should prepare their students in the course of regular teaching, he says


• Perry: For students with PTSD, the normal precautions should be taken

Editor's note: David M. Perry is an associate professor of history at Dominican University in Illinois. He writes regularly at his blog: How Did We Get Into This Mess? Follow him on Twitter.

(CNN) -- In the Roman poet Ovid's "Metamorphoses," one of the great works of Western literature, King Tereus of Thrace rapes his wife's sister, Philomena, then cuts out her tongue.

In "Titus Andronicus," Shakespeare references Ovid with an even more grotesque rape and mutilation, while including multiple acts of murder, torture and cannibalism. Kathleen Kennedy, associate professor of literature at Penn State University-Brandywine, says, "Everyone is traumatized by Titus."

Over the last few months, students, faculty and administrators at a number of universities have been debating whether faculty should be obligated to place "trigger warnings" on their syllabi before assigning content that might trigger a traumatic episode in one of their students.

Before assigning Ovid, Shakespeare or any topic about human cruelty and suffering, what should teachers be obligated to tell their students?

Proponents of trigger warnings, reasonably, argue that students will be unable to learn when confronted with content that triggers traumatic recollection. This isn't about students just being uncomfortable, they say, but about ensuring students don't have to choose between their education and their sense of safety.

Critics of trigger warnings, also reasonably, contend that education requires pushing students to engage with difficult material that makes them uncomfortable. Professors worry about academic freedom and having to address a whole cascade of "isms" as they design and execute their syllabi.

Furthermore, they see the focus on trigger warnings now as part of the corporatization of higher education, in which syllabi are designed not to structure learning but to prevent lawsuits. Professors are concerned about trauma, but don't want to slap labels on their syllabi that are the equivalent of "Caution: This Coffee is Hot."

To some extent, both sides are right. Some students suffer from serious trauma, but there's no feasible way a blanket policy on trigger warning can really work. Fortunately, we can solve the situation though a combination of best-teaching practices and the application of pre-existing policies.

The biggest problem here emerges from the nature of trauma. Triggers are extremely personal and, from the outside, unpredictable. Professors cannot review their course material and know, with any certainty, what might or might not function as a trigger for their students.

We worry about surprising students with triggering content and re-victimizing them. We don't need a vague if well-intentioned policy, however, to address most cases. Instead, let's just rely on good teaching.

Tressie McMillan Cottom, writer and sociologist, noted that the real problem with triggers is when they catch you by surprise. She writes, "Trigger warnings make sense on platforms where troubling information can be foisted upon you without prior knowledge, as in the case of retweets." In a classroom, where the subject matter ought to be reasonably transparent, such surprises should be rare.

We should all know what we are going to encounter in classes on the Holocaust, on human rights law, on the history of race in America, or countless other clearly labeled topics that of necessity must deal with often graphic and upsetting stories. If you sign up for such a class, be ready.

Students might not be so ready for Ovid or Shakespeare. Why not prepare them for the reading? Don't do it because you are worried about trauma, but because it will help them learn.

I would never want my students to be surprised by something horrific in their reading, whether the "Red Wedding" on "Game of Thrones" or the rape of Philomena in Ovid. Instead, I want them ready to work with challenging texts so they learn. Spoilers might be bad for entertainment, but they are good for education.

Spoilers might be bad for entertainment, but they are good for education.

David Perry

Once most students know what they are likely to encounter in their work, the surprise factor in triggering situations ought to be mitigated.

For a small percentage of students, however, this kind of preparation may not be enough. The word "disability" has been largely missing from the debate on trigger warnings in higher education.

Post-traumatic stress disorder is a psychological disability. It doesn't just affect soldiers. Students (or anyone) suffering from PTSD are not just "uncomfortable" when their trauma is triggered. Valeria M. Souza, a lecturer of Portuguese at Washington University in St. Louis and a blogger about disability and education, has noted that universities already have, or at least should have, robust systems to ensure compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act and to provide reasonable accommodations for students with disabilities.

It would be entirely reasonable to help a student with a disability who is best accommodated by avoiding certain triggering material in the classroom. That said, avoidance is not always the best approach for people with trauma.

One method of treating PTSD is called "exposure therapy," in which patients repeatedly engage with their traumas in order to desensitize themselves to potentially triggering moments.

The classroom is not a therapist's clinic, but the practice does suggest that avoidance is not the only choice. Moreover, it's a decision for a patient and a therapist or doctor to decide and advise a university, rather than for faculty or administrators to decide for themselves.

As educators and as a society we need to respect trauma and create conditions in which healing is possible. Part of that respect is to recognize that we don't know how any given person's trauma might manifest, so we can't assume we know what is or isn't a trigger. And we don't have to know.

If professors follow good teaching practices and help students be ready for the course content as it unfolds, while universities provide well-funded and expert disability support services, we should be ready to handle whatever trigger issues lurk undetected. We don't need a whole new set of warning labels.

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